John Audubon Was Famous For Paintings Of Which Animals?

American self-trained artist, naturalist, and ornithologist (1785–1851)

John James Audubon FRS
Portrait of Audubon past John Syme, 1826
Built-in	Jean-Jacques Rabin (1785-04-26)Apr 26, 1785 Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue (subsequently Haiti)
Died	Jan 27, 1851(1851-01-27) (aged 65) New York City, New York, U.S.
Citizenship	France Usa
Occupation	Artist, naturalist, ornithologist
Spouse(s)	Lucy Bakewell ​ (m. 1808)​
Signature

John James Audubon (born Jean-Jacques Rabin; Apr 26, 1785 – January 27, 1851) was an American self-trained artist, naturalist, and ornithologist. His combined interests in art and ornithology turned into a program to make a complete pictorial record of all the bird species of North America.^[i] He was notable for his all-encompassing studies documenting all types of American birds and for his detailed illustrations, which depicted the birds in their natural habitats. His major work, a color-plate book titled The Birds of America (1827–1839), is considered one of the finest ornithological works ever completed. Audubon is likewise known for identifying 25 new species. He is the eponym of the National Audubon Lodge, and his name adorns a big number of towns, neighborhoods, and streets in every part of the The states.^[2] Dozens of scientific names first published by Audubon are currently in use by the scientific community.^[iii]

Early life [edit]

Audubon was born in Les Cayes in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Republic of haiti)^[4] on his father's sugarcane plantation. He was the son of Lieutenant Jean Audubon, a French naval officer (and privateer) from the south of Brittany,^[5] and his mistress, Jeanne Rabine,^[vi] a 27-year-old chambermaid from Les Touches, Brittany (now in the mod region Pays de la Loire).^{[five] [7]} They named him Jean Rabin.^[seven] Another 1887 biographer has stated that his mother was a lady from a Louisiana plantation.^[viii] His female parent died when he was a few months old, as she had suffered from tropical illness since arriving on the island. His father already had an unknown number of mixed-race children (among them a girl named Marie-Madeleine),^[9] some by his mixed-race housekeeper, Catherine "Sanitte" Bouffard^[9] (described as a quadroon, meaning she was 3-quarters European in ancestry).^[10] Following Jeanne Rabin'south decease, Audubon renewed his relationship with Sanitte Bouffard and had a girl by her, named Muguet. Bouffard also took care of the infant boy Jean.^[11]

The senior Audubon had allowable ships. During the American Revolution, he had been imprisoned by Britain. After his release, he helped the American crusade.^[12] He had long worked to relieve coin and secure his family unit's future with real estate. Due to slave unrest in the Caribbean area, in 1789 he sold part of his plantation in Saint-Domingue and purchased a 284-acre subcontract called Mill Grove, 20 miles from Philadelphia, to diversify his investments. Increasing tension in Saint-Domingue between the colonists and the African slaves, who greatly outnumbered them, convinced the senior Jean Audubon to return to France, where he became a member of the Republican Guard. In 1788 he arranged for Jean and in 1791 for Muget to be transported to France.^{[13] [14] [15]}

La Gerbetière, mansion owned by Audubon'due south father in Couëron, where young Audubon was raised

The children were raised in Couëron, near Nantes, France, past Audubon and his French wife, Anne Moynet Audubon, whom he had married years before his time in Saint-Domingue. In 1794 they formally adopted both the children to regularize their legal status in France.^[14] They renamed the boy Jean-Jacques Fougère Audubon and the girl Rose.^[16]

From his earliest days, Audubon had an affinity for birds. "I felt an intimacy with them...adjoining on frenzy [that] must accompany my steps through life."^[17] His father encouraged his interest in nature:

He would point out the elegant motion of the birds, and the dazzler and softness of their plumage. He called my attention to their show of pleasure or sense of danger, their perfect forms and splendid attire. He would speak of their departure and return with the seasons.^[18]

In France during the chaotic years of the French Revolution and its aftermath, the younger Audubon grew up to exist a handsome and gregarious man. He played flute and violin, and learned to ride, fence, and dance.^[19] A swell walker, he loved roaming in the woods, frequently returning with natural curiosities, including birds' eggs and nests, of which he made crude drawings.^[xx] His father planned to brand a seaman of his son. At twelve, Audubon went to military school and became a motel boy. He quickly constitute out that he was susceptible to seasickness and non fond of mathematics or navigation. After failing the officer's qualification test, Audubon ended his incipient naval career. He was cheerfully back on solid ground and exploring the fields again, focusing on birds.^[21]

Immigration to the United States [edit]

In 1803, his father obtained a faux passport and then that Jean-Jacques could go to the United States to avoid conscription in the Napoleonic Wars. eighteen-year-old Jean-Jacques boarded ship, changing his name to the anglicized form John James Audubon.^[22] Jean Audubon and Claude Rozier bundled a business organization partnership for their sons John James Audubon and [Jean Ferdinand Rozier] to pursue atomic number 82 mining in Pennsylvania. The Audubon-Rozier partnership was based on Claude Rozier's buying one-half of Jean Audubon's share of a plantation in Haiti, and lending money to the partnership as secured by half interest in lead mining at Audubon'southward property of Manufacturing plant Grove.^{[23] [24]}

Audubon caught xanthous fever upon inflow in New York City. The transport's captain placed him in a boarding business firm run by Quaker women. They nursed Audubon to recovery and taught him English, including the Quaker form of using "thee" and "g", otherwise then archaic. He traveled with the family unit's Quaker lawyer to the Audubon family farm Mill Grove.^[25] The 284-acre (115 ha) homestead is located on the Perkiomen Creek a few miles from Valley Forge.

Audubon lived with the tenants in the two-story rock house, in an area that he considered a paradise. "Hunting, fishing, cartoon, and music occupied my every moment; cares I knew non, and cared cypher about them."^[19] Studying his surround, Audubon quickly learned the ornithologist's rule, which he wrote down equally, "The nature of the place—whether loftier or low, moist or dry, whether sloping due north or south, or begetting alpine copse or low shrubs—mostly gives hint as to its inhabitants."^[26]

Plate 1 of The Birds of America by Audubon depicting a wild turkey

His father hoped that the pb mines on the property could be commercially adult, as lead was an essential component of bullets. This could provide his son with a profitable occupation.^[27] At Manufacturing plant Grove, Audubon met the owner of the nearby Fatland Ford estate, William Bakewell, and his daughter Lucy Bakewell.

Audubon set well-nigh to study American birds, determined to illustrate his findings in a more realistic manner than most artists did so.^[28] He began cartoon and painting birds, and recording their behavior. Later on an accidental fall into a creek, Audubon contracted a severe fever. He was nursed and recovered at Fatland Ford, with Lucy at his side.

Risking conscription in France, Audubon returned in 1805 to encounter his father and ask permission to ally. He also needed to talk over family unit business concern plans. While there, he met the naturalist and medico Charles-Marie D'Orbigny, who improved Audubon'southward taxidermy skills and taught him scientific methods of enquiry.^[29] Although his return transport was overtaken past an English privateer, Audubon and his hidden golden coins survived the run across.^[30]

Audubon resumed his bird studies and created his own nature museum, perhaps inspired by the great museum of natural history created by Charles Willson Peale in Philadelphia. Peale's bird exhibits were considered scientifically advanced. Audubon's room was brimming with birds' eggs, stuffed raccoons and opossums, fish, snakes, and other creatures. He had become adept at specimen preparation and taxidermy.

Deeming the mining venture too risky, with his begetter'southward approval Audubon sold function of the Mill Grove subcontract, including the firm and mine, but retaining some state for investment.^[31]

Banding experiment with Eastern Phoebes [edit]

In volume 2 of Ornithological Biography (1834), Audubon told a story from his childhood, 30 years after the events reportedly took place, that has since garnered him the characterization of "first bird bander in America".^[32] The story has since been exposed equally probable apocryphal.^[33] In the spring of 1804, co-ordinate to the story, Audubon discovered a nest of the "Pewee Flycatcher", now known as Eastern Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), in a pocket-size grotto on the property of Mill Grove. To determine whether the other phoebes on the belongings were "descended from the same stock", Audubon (1834:126) said that he tied silver threads to the legs of five nestlings:

I took the whole family unit out, and blew off the exuviae of the feathers from the nest. I attached light threads to their legs: these they invariably removed, either with their bills, or with the assistance of their parents. I renewed them, however, until I plant the petty fellows habituated to them; and at last, when they were most to go out the nest, I fixed a light silver thread to the leg of each, loose plenty not to hurt the part, only so fastened that no exertions of theirs could remove it.^[34]

He also said that he had "aplenty proof subsequently that the breed of young Pewees, raised in the cave, returned the following spring, and established themselves farther upwards on the creek, and among the outhouses in the neighbourhood … having defenseless several of these birds on the nest, [he] had the pleasure of finding that ii of them had the little ring on the leg", but multiple independent primary sources (including original, dated drawings of European species^[35]) demonstrate that Audubon was in French republic during the spring of 1805, not in Pennsylvania as he afterwards claimed.^[33] Furthermore, Audubon's claim to have re-sighted 2 out of 5 of the banded phoebes as adults (i.east., a 40% rate of natal philopatry) has not been replicated past modern studies with much larger sample sizes (e.g., one.half dozen% rate among 549 nestlings banded; and 1.3% charge per unit amid 217 nestlings banded).^[36] These facts cast doubt on the truth of Audubon's story.^[33]

Marriage and family unit [edit]

Plate from The Birds of America past Audubon of a Carolina pigeon (now called mourning pigeon)

In 1808, Audubon moved to Kentucky, which was rapidly beingness settled. Six months subsequently, he married Lucy Bakewell at her family estate, Fatland Ford, and took her the next day to Kentucky. The ii young people shared many common interests, and early on began to spend fourth dimension together, exploring the natural earth effectually them. Though their finances were tenuous, the Audubons started a family. They had two sons, Victor Gifford (1809–1860) and John Woodhouse Audubon (1812–1862), and two daughters who died while still immature, Lucy at 2 years (1815–1817) and Rose at nine months (1819–1820).^[37] Both sons eventually helped publish their male parent's works. John W. Audubon became a naturalist, writer, and painter in his ain right.^[38]

Starting out in business organisation [edit]

Audubon and Jean Ferdinand Rozier moved their merchant concern partnership west at various stages, ending ultimately in Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, a former French colonial settlement w of the Mississippi River and south of St. Louis. Aircraft goods ahead, Audubon and Rozier started a general shop in Louisville, Kentucky on the Ohio River;^{[ when? ]} the city had an increasingly important slave marketplace and was the nigh important port between Pittsburgh and New Orleans. Soon he was drawing bird specimens once again. He regularly burned his earlier efforts to force continuous comeback.^[39] He besides took detailed field notes to certificate his drawings.

Due to rise tensions with the British, President Jefferson ordered an embargo on British trade in 1808, adversely affecting Audubon's trading business.^[xl] In 1810, Audubon moved his business organization further west to the less competitive Henderson, Kentucky, surface area. He and his small family unit took over an abandoned log cabin. In the fields and forests, Audubon wore typical borderland clothes and moccasins, having "a brawl pouch, a buffalo horn filled with gunpowder, a butcher knife, and a tomahawk on his belt".^[40]

He frequently turned to hunting and angling to feed his family, as business organisation was slow. On a prospecting trip down the Ohio River with a load of appurtenances, Audubon joined up with Shawnee and Osage hunting parties, learning their methods, drawing specimens by the bonfire, and finally parting "like brethren".^[41] Audubon had great respect for Native Americans: "Whenever I meet Indians, I experience the greatness of our Creator in all its splendor, for there I meet the man naked from His hand and even so costless from acquired sorrow."^[42] Audubon also admired the skill of Kentucky riflemen and the "regulators", citizen lawmen who created a kind of justice on the Kentucky frontier. In his travel notes, he claims to have encountered Daniel Boone.^[43]

Audubon and Rozier mutually agreed to end their partnership at Ste. Genevieve on April vi, 1811. Audubon had decided to piece of work at ornithology and art, and wanted to render to Lucy and their son in Kentucky. Rozier agreed to pay Audubon Usa$iii,000 (equivalent to $48,858 in 2021), with $i,000 in greenbacks and the balance to be paid over time.^{[44] [45] [46]}

The terms of the dissolution of the partnership include those by Audubon:

I John Audubon, having this solar day mutual consent with Ferdinand Rozier, dissolved and forever closed the partnership and firm of Audubon and Rozier, and having Received from said Ferdinand Rozier payment and notes to the full amount of my office of the goods and debts of the tardily firm of Audubon and Rozier, I the said John Audubon one of the firm aforesaid practice hereby release and forever quit claim to all and any interest which I have or may have in the stock on manus and debts due to the late business firm of Audubon and Rozier assign, transfer and prepare over to said Ferdinand Rozier, all my rights, titles, claims and interest in the goods, merchandise and debts due to the belatedly house of Audubon and Rozier, and do hereby authorize and empower him for my part, to collect the same in any way what ever either privately or past suit or suits in police force or equity hereby declaring him sole and absolute proprietor and rightful owner of all appurtenances, merchandise and debts of this house aforesaid, as completely as they were the appurtenances and property of the late firm Audubon and Rozier.

In witness thereof I have set my hand and seal this Sixth solar day of April 1811

John Audubon

Ed D. DeVillamonte

John James Audubon house, Henderson, Kentucky.

Audubon was working in Missouri and out riding when the 1811 New Madrid convulsion struck. When Audubon reached his firm, he was relieved to find no major damage, but the area was shaken by aftershocks for months.^[47] The quake is estimated past scholars to have ranked from 8.4 to 8.8 on today'due south moment magnitude scale of severity, stronger than the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 which is estimated at vii.8. Audubon writes that while on horseback, he start believed the afar rumbling to be the sound of a tornado,

just the brute knew better than I what was forthcoming, and instead of going faster, and so well-nigh stopped that I remarked he placed one foot afterward some other on the ground with as much precaution every bit if walking on a shine slice of water ice. I thought he had suddenly foundered, and, speaking to him, was on point of dismounting and leading him, when he all of a sudden fell a-groaning piteously, hung his head, spread out his forelegs, as if to salve himself from falling, and stood stock even so, standing to groan. I idea my equus caballus was about to dice, and would accept sprung from his dorsum had a minute more elapsed; simply every bit that instant all the shrubs and copse began to motion from their very roots, the ground rose and fell in successive furrows, like the ruffled water of a lake, and I became bewildered in my ideas, as I likewise plainly discovered, that all this atrocious commotion was the result of an earthquake. I had never witnessed annihilation of the kind before, although like every person, I knew earthquakes by description. Just what is description compared to reality! Who can tell the sensations which I experienced when I found myself rocking, equally it were, upon my equus caballus, and with him moving to and fro like a child in a cradle, with the most imminent danger effectually me.^[48]

He noted that as the earthquake retreated, "the air was filled with an extremely bellicose sulphurous olfactory property."^[49]

Citizenship and debt [edit]

A cinnamon acquit by J.T. Bowen later on Audubon

During a visit to Philadelphia in 1812 following Congress' declaration of war against Great Uk, Audubon became an American citizen and had to give upwards his French citizenship.^[50] Later on his return to Kentucky, he found that rats had eaten his entire collection of more than 200 drawings. After weeks of depression, he took to the field over again, determined to re-do his drawings to an fifty-fifty higher standard.^[51]

The State of war of 1812 upset Audubon'due south plans to move his business to New Orleans. He formed a partnership with Lucy's brother and built upwards their trade in Henderson. Between 1812 and the Panic of 1819, times were good. Audubon bought land and slaves, founded a flour mill, and enjoyed his growing family. After 1819, Audubon went bankrupt and was thrown into jail for debt. The fiddling coin he earned was from drawing portraits, particularly death-bed sketches, greatly esteemed by state folk before photography.^[52] He wrote, "[One thousand]y heart was sorely heavy, for scarcely had I plenty to go along my dear ones alive; and yet through these nighttime days I was being led to the development of the talents I loved."^[53]

Early on ornithological career [edit]

Plate 181 of The Birds of America by Audubon depicting a golden hawkeye, 1833–34

Audubon worked for a brief time equally the first paid employee of the Western History Society, now known as The Museum of Natural History at The Cincinnati Museum Eye.^[54] He and so traveled south on the Mississippi with his gun, paintbox, and assistant Joseph Mason, who stayed with him from Oct 1820 to August 1822 and painted the plant life backgrounds of many of Audubon'due south bird studies. He was committed to discover and paint all the birds of Northward America for eventual publication. His goal was to surpass the earlier ornithological work of poet-naturalist Alexander Wilson.^[55] Though he could not afford to buy Wilson'south work, Audubon used it to guide him when he had access to a copy.

In 1818, Rafinesque visited Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to study fishes and was a invitee of Audubon. In the middle of the night, Rafinesque noticed a bat in his room and thought it was a new species. He happened to grab Audubon's favourite violin in an effort to knock the bat downwards, resulting in the destruction of the violin. Audubon reportedly took revenge by showing drawings and describing some fictitious fishes and rodents to Rafinesque; Rafinesque gave scientific names to some of these fishes in his Ichthyologia Ohiensis.^{[56] [57]}

On October 12, 1820, Audubon traveled into Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida in search of ornithological specimens. He traveled with George Lehman, a professional Swiss landscape artist. The following summer, he moved upriver to the Oakley Plantation in Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, where he taught cartoon to Eliza Pirrie, the young girl of the owners. Though low-paying, the task was ideal, as information technology afforded him much time to roam and paint in the woods. (The plantation has been preserved as the Audubon State Historic Site, and is located at 11788 Highway 965, between Jackson and St. Francisville.)

Audubon chosen his future work The Birds of America. He attempted to pigment i page each solar day. Painting with newly discovered technique, he decided his earlier works were inferior and re-did them.^[58] He hired hunters to gather specimens for him. Audubon realized the ambitious project would take him abroad from his family for months at a fourth dimension.

Audubon sometimes used his cartoon talent to trade for goods or sell small works to heighten cash. He fabricated charcoal portraits on need at $v each and gave drawing lessons.^[59] In 1823, Audubon took lessons in oil painting technique from John Steen, a instructor of American landscape, and history painter Thomas Cole. Though he did not use oils much for his bird work, Audubon earned good money painting oil portraits for patrons along the Mississippi. (Audubon'southward business relationship reveals that he learned oil painting in December 1822 from Jacob Stein, an afoot portrait artist. After they had enjoyed all the portrait patronage to be expected in Natchez, Mississippi, during January–March 1823, they resolved to travel together equally perambulating portrait-artists.)^{[threescore] [61]} During this catamenia (1822–1823), Audubon too worked equally an instructor at Jefferson College in Washington, Mississippi.

Lucy became the steady breadwinner for the couple and their 2 young sons. Trained as a teacher, she conducted classes for children in their home. Later she was hired as a local instructor in Louisiana. She boarded with their children at the home of a wealthy plantation owner, every bit was often the custom of the fourth dimension.^{[60] [62]}

In 1824, Audubon returned to Philadelphia to seek a publisher for his bird drawings. He took oil painting lessons from Thomas Sully and met Charles Bonaparte, who admired his work and recommended he go to Europe to have his bird drawings engraved.^[63] Audubon was nominated for membership at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia by Charles Alexandre Lesueur, Reuben Haines, and Isaiah Lukens, on July 27, 1824.^[64] Notwithstanding, he failed to assemble plenty support, and his nomination was rejected by vote on August 31, 1824;^[64] around the same time accusations of scientific misconduct were levied past Alexander Lawson and others.^[65]

The Birds of America [edit]

With his married woman's support, in 1826 at age 41, Audubon took his growing drove of work to England. He sailed from New Orleans to Liverpool on the cotton-hauling ship Delos, reaching England in the autumn of 1826 with his portfolio of over 300 drawings.^[66] With letters of introduction to prominent Englishmen, and paintings of imaginary species including the "Bird of Washington",^[67] Audubon gained their quick attention. "I accept been received here in a manner not to exist expected during my highest enthusiastic hopes."^[68]

The British could non get plenty of Audubon's images of weald America and its natural attractions. He met with swell acceptance as he toured effectually England and Scotland, and was lionized equally "the American woodsman". He raised enough coin to begin publishing his The Birds of America. This monumental work consists of 435 manus-colored, life-size prints of 497 bird species, made from engraved copper plates of diverse sizes depending on the size of the image. They were printed on sheets measuring about 39 by 26 inches (990 by 660 mm).^[69] The work illustrates slightly more than 700 Northward American bird species, of which some were based on specimens collected by fellow ornithologist John Kirk Townsend on his journey across America with Thomas Nuttall in 1834 as part of Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth'southward second expedition across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Sea.^{[70] [71]}

The pages were organized for artistic effect and contrasting involvement, as if the reader were taking a visual tour. (Some critics idea he should accept organized the plates in Linnaean order every bit befitting a "serious" ornithological treatise.)^[72] The starting time and perchance most famous plate was the wild turkey. Among the earliest plates printed was the "Bird of Washington", which generated favorable publicity for Audubon as his first discovery of a new species. However, no specimen of the species has ever been found, and enquiry published in 2020 suggests that this plate was a mixture of plagiarism and ornithological fraud.^[73]

The cost of printing the entire piece of work was $115,640 (over $2,000,000 today), paid for from advance subscriptions, exhibitions, oil painting commissions, and animal skins, which Audubon hunted and sold.^[69] Audubon's great piece of work was a remarkable accomplishment. Information technology took more than 14 years of field observations and drawings, plus his single-handed management and promotion of the projection to make it a success. A reviewer wrote,

All anxieties and fears which overshadowed his work in its beginning had passed abroad. The prophecies of kind only overprudent friends, who did not understand his self-sustaining free energy, had proved untrue; the malicious promise of his enemies, for fifty-fifty the gentle lover of nature has enemies, had been disappointed; he had secured a commanding identify in the respect and gratitude of men.^[74]

Colorists practical each color in associates-line fashion (over fifty were hired for the work).^[75] The original edition was engraved in aquatint by Robert Havell, Jr., who took over the job after the first ten plates engraved by W. H. Lizars were deemed inadequate. Known every bit the Double Elephant folio for its double elephant paper size, it is often regarded as the greatest moving-picture show book ever produced and the finest aquatint work. By the 1830s the aquatint process had been largely superseded past lithography.^[76] A contemporary French critic wrote, "A magic ability transported the states into the forests which for so many years this man of genius has trod. Learned and ignorant alike were astonished at the spectacle ... It is a real and palpable vision of the New World."^[77]

Audubon sold oil-painted copies of the drawings to make extra money and publicize the volume. A potential publisher had Audubon's portrait painted past John Syme, who clothed the naturalist in frontier apparel; the portrait was hung at the entrance of his exhibitions, promoting his rustic prototype. The painting is now held in the White House art collection, and is non frequently displayed.^[78] The New-York Historical Club holds all 435 of the preparatory watercolors for The Birds of America. Lucy Audubon sold them to the order later on her married man'south death. All but eighty of the original copper plates were melted down when Lucy Audubon, drastic for coin, sold them for chip to the Phelps Dodge Corporation.^[79]

Male monarch George IV was among the avid fans of Audubon and subscribed to support publication of the book. Britain'southward Royal Social club recognized Audubon'due south achievement by electing him as a fellow. He was the 2d American to exist elected after statesman Benjamin Franklin. While in Edinburgh to seek subscribers for the book, Audubon gave a demonstration of his method of supporting birds with wire at professor Robert Jameson's Wernerian Natural History Association. Student Charles Darwin was in the audience. Audubon also visited the dissecting theatre of the anatomist Robert Knox. Audubon was also successful in French republic, gaining the King and several of the nobility as subscribers.^[eighty]

The Birds of America became very popular during Europe'southward Romantic era.^[81] Audubon's dramatic portraits of birds appealed to people in this catamenia's fascination with natural history.^{[81] [82] [83]}

After career [edit]

Audubon returned to America in 1829 to complete more than drawings for his magnum opus. He also hunted animals and shipped the valued skins to British friends. He was reunited with his family unit. After settling concern affairs, Lucy accompanied him back to England. Audubon found that during his absenteeism, he had lost some subscribers due to the uneven quality of coloring of the plates. Others were in arrears in their payments. His engraver fixed the plates and Audubon reassured subscribers, but a few begged off. He responded, "The Birds of America will so heighten in value as much every bit they are now depreciated by certain fools and envious persons."^[84] He was elected a Swain of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences^[85] in 1830 and to the American Philosophical Society^[86] in 1831.

He followed The Birds of America with a sequel Ornithological Biographies. This was a collection of life histories of each species written with Scottish ornithologist William MacGillivray. The two books were printed separately to avoid a British law requiring copies of all publications with text to be deposited in copyright libraries, a huge fiscal burden for the self-published Audubon.^[87] Both books were published betwixt 1827 and 1839.

During the 1830s, Audubon continued making expeditions in N America. During a trip to Key W, a companion wrote in a newspaper article, "Mr. Audubon is the almost enthusiastic and indefatigable man I ever knew ... Mr. Audubon was neither dispirited by oestrus, fatigue, or bad luck ... he rose every morning at iii o'clock and went out ... until 1 o'clock." Then he would describe the remainder of the day before returning to the field in the evening, a routine he kept up for weeks and months.^[88] In the posthumously published bookThe Life of John James Audubon The Naturalist,^[48] edited past his widow and derived primarily from his notes, Audubon related visiting the northeastern Florida coastal carbohydrate plantation of John Joachim Bulow for Christmas 1831/early Jan 1832. It was started by his begetter and at iv,675 acres, was the largest in East Florida.^[89] Bulow had a sugar mill built at that place under direction of a Scottish engineer, who accompanied Audubon on an excursion in the region. The mill was destroyed in 1836 in the Seminole Wars. The plantation site is preserved today equally the Bulow Plantation Ruins Celebrated State Park.^[89]

In March 1832, Audubon booked passage at St. Augustine, Florida, aboard the schooner Agnes, leap for Charleston, Due south Carolina. A gale forced the vessel to berth at the mouth of the Savannah River, where an officeholder of the United States Army Corps of Engineers on Cockspur Island where Fort Pulaski was nether construction, transported Audubon upstream to Savannah, Georgia, on their clomp. Just as he was about to board a Charleston-bound stage coach, he remembered William Gaston, a Savannah resident who had in one case befriended him. Audubon stayed at City Hotel, and the next mean solar day sought out and establish the associate, "who showed simply little enthusiasm for his Birds of America" and who doubted that the book would sell a unmarried copy in the city.^[90] A down-hearted Audubon continued to talk to the merchant and a mutual friend who, by adventure, had appeared. The merchant, having farther considered his position, said, "I subscribe to your piece of work", gave him $200 for the offset volume, and promised to act equally his agent in finding additional subscriptions.^[90]

In 1833, Audubon sailed north from Maine, accompanied past his son John, and five other young colleagues, to explore the ornithology of Labrador. On the return voyage, their transport Ripley fabricated a stop at St. George'south, Newfoundland. In that location Audubon and his assistants documented 36 species of birds.^[91]

Audubon painted some of his works while staying at the Central Westward house and gardens of Capt. John H. Geiger. This site was preserved every bit the Audubon Business firm and Tropical Gardens.^[92]

In 1841, having finished the Ornithological Biographies, Audubon returned to the U.s. with his family. He bought an estate on the Hudson River in northern Manhattan. (The roughly 20-acre manor came to be known as Audubon Park in the 1860s when Audubon'due south widow began selling off parcels of the manor for the development of free-standing single family homes.)^[93] Between 1840 and 1844, he published an octavo edition of The Birds of America, with 65 additional plates.^[94] Printed in standard format to be more affordable than the oversize British edition, it earned $36,000 and was purchased by 1100 subscribers.^[95] Audubon spent much time on "subscription-gathering trips", drumming up sales of the octavo edition, as he hoped to exit his family a sizeable income.^[96]

Decease [edit]

Audubon fabricated some excursions out West where he hoped to record Western species he had missed, merely his wellness began to fail. In 1848, he manifested signs of senility or possibly dementia from what is now called Alzheimer's affliction, his "noble mind in ruins".^[97] He died at his family home in northern Manhattan on Jan 27, 1851. Audubon is cached in the graveyard at the Church of the Intercession in the Trinity Church building Cemetery and Mausoleum at 155th Street and Broadway in Manhattan, nigh his home. An imposing monument in his honor was erected at the cemetery, which is now recognized as part of the Heritage Rose District of NYC.^[98]

Audubon's final work dealt with mammals; he prepared The Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America (1845–1849) in collaboration with his adept friend Rev. John Bachman of Charleston, S Carolina, who supplied much of the scientific text. His son, John Woodhouse Audubon, drew nigh of the plates. The work was completed by Audubon's sons, and the 2nd volume was published posthumously in 1851.

Art and methods [edit]

Audubon adult his own methods for drawing birds. Kickoff, he killed them using fine shot. He then used wires to prop them into a natural position, dissimilar the common method of many ornithologists, who prepared and stuffed the specimens into a rigid pose. When working on a major specimen like an eagle, he would spend up to iv xv-hour days, preparing, studying, and drawing it.^[99] His paintings of birds are prepare true-to-life in their natural habitat. He often portrayed them as if caught in motion, peculiarly feeding or hunting. This was in stark contrast to the stiff representations of birds by his contemporaries, such equally Alexander Wilson. Audubon based his paintings on his extensive field observations. He worked primarily with watercolor early on. He added colored chalk or pastel to add softness to feathers, especially those of owls and herons.^[100] He employed multiple layers of watercoloring, and sometimes used gouache. All species were drawn life size which accounts for the contorted poses of the larger birds as Audubon strove to fit them within the page size.^[101] Smaller species were normally placed on branches with berries, fruit, and flowers. He used several birds in a drawing to nowadays all views of anatomy and wings. Larger birds were often placed in their ground habitat or perching on stumps. At times, as with woodpeckers, he combined several species on one folio to offer contrasting features. He oft depicted the birds' nests and eggs, and occasionally natural predators, such every bit snakes. He usually illustrated male and female variations, and sometimes juveniles. In after drawings, Audubon used administration to render the habitat for him. In addition to faithful renderings of anatomy, Audubon likewise employed carefully constructed composition, drama, and slightly exaggerated poses to accomplish creative every bit well equally scientific furnishings.

• 

  Item from the next image

Dispute over accuracy [edit]

The success of Birds of America may be considered to be marred by numerous accusations of plagiarism and scientific fraud.^{[33] [67] [102] [65] [103]} Inquiry has uncovered that Audubon falsified (and fabricated) scientific data,^{[57] [104]} published fraudulent information and images in scientific journals and commercial books,^{[33] [67] [102]} invented new species to impress potential subscribers,^[67] and to "prank" rivals,^{[57] [104]} and about likely stole the holotype specimen of Harris'south militarist (Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi) before pretending not to know its collector, who was i of his subscribers.^[105] He failed to credit work past Joseph Stonemason, prompting a serial of manufactures in 1835 by critic John Neal questioning Audubon's honesty and trustworthiness.^[106] Audubon too repeatedly lied near the details of his autobiography, including the place and circumstances of his birth.^[107]

The litany of misconduct in Audubon's scientific career has fatigued comparisons to others such as Richard Meinertzhagen.^[67] Like to early on biographies of Meinertzhagen, Audubon'southward scientific misconduct has been repeatedly ignored and/or downplayed past biographers,^{[33] [67] [103]} who defend Ornithological Biography equally a "valuable resource and a very good read".^[108]

Legacy [edit]

Audubon in later years, c. 1850

Audubon's influence on ornithology and natural history was far reaching. Almost all later ornithological works were inspired by his artistry and high standards. Charles Darwin quoted Audubon three times in On the Origin of Species and likewise in afterwards works.^[109] Despite some errors in field observations, he made a significant contribution to the understanding of bird anatomy and beliefs through his field notes. The Birds of America is still considered one of the greatest examples of book art. Audubon discovered 25 new species and 12 new subspecies.^[110]

• He was elected to the Royal Social club of Edinburgh, the Linnean Society, and the Regal Order in recognition of his contributions.
• The homestead Manufacturing plant Grove in Audubon, Pennsylvania, is open to the public and contains a museum presenting all his major works, including The Birds of America.
• The Audubon Museum at John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky, houses many of Audubon's original watercolors, oils, engravings and personal memorabilia.
• In 1905, the National Audubon Social club was incorporated and named in his honour. Its mission "is to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds ..."
• He was honored in 1940 by the United states Post Office with a 1 cent Famous Americans Series stamp stamp; the stamp is light-green.
• He was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 22¢ Groovy Americans serial stamp.
• On Dec 6, 2010, a copy of The Birds of America was sold at a Sotheby'due south auction for $11.5 million, the second highest toll for a single printed book.^[111]
• On April 26, 2011, Google celebrated his 226th birthday by displaying a special Google Doodle on its global homepage.^[112]
• Audubon'southward life and contributions to science and art was the subject of the 2017 motion-picture show Audubon.

Audubon in popular civilisation [edit]

Audubon is the subject of the 1969 book-length verse form, Audubon: A Vision by Robert Penn Warren.^[113] Stephen Vincent Benét, with his wife Rosemary Benét, included a verse form most Audubon in the children's poesy book A Book of Americans.^[114]

Audubon's 1833 trip to Labrador is the subject area of the novel Creation by Katherine Govier.^[115] Audubon and his wife, Lucy, are the chief characters in the "June" department of the Maureen Howard novel Big as Life: Three Tales for Spring.^[116] In the novel Audubon's Lookout man, John Gregory Brown explores a mysterious death that took place on a Louisiana plantation when Audubon worked there as a young man.^[117]

George Voskovec plays Audubon in the 1952 American film The Iron Mistress, which stars Alan Ladd as James Bowie. The flick imagines a friendship between the two men.

In 1985, The National Gallery of Fine art 20C History Project produced a documentary, "John James Audubon: The Birds of America", now widely available online.

In July 2007, PBS'due south American Masters series aired an episode titled "John James Audubon: Drawn from Nature," ^[118] Supplemental material is bachelor on the PBS website.

Audubon appears in the curt story "Audubon In Atlantis" by Harry Turtledove, published in the 2010 collection Atlantis and Other Places.^[119]

The choral oratorio Audubon by James Kallembach was premiered on November 9, 2018, in Boston, Massachusetts past Chorus pro Musica.^[120] The work depicts scenes of Audubon'due south life and descriptions of the birds he drew with text drawn from the 2004 biography past Richard Rhodes.^[121]

Places named in his award [edit]

• Audubon Park and Zoo in New Orleans, where he lived offset in 1821.
• Audubon and Audubon Park, both in New Jersey. Many streets in Audubon Park are named after birds drawn by him.
• Audubon, Pennsylvania, also has the Audubon Bird Sanctuary. Most of the streets in this small-scale town are named after birds that he drew.
• Audubon Nature Plant, a family unit of museums, parks, and other organizations in New Orleans, eight of which conduct the Audubon name.
• Audubon Park and country order in Louisville, Kentucky, is in the area of his former full general store.
• Several towns and Audubon Canton, Iowa.
• John James Audubon Bridge (Mississippi River), connecting Pointe Coupee and West Feliciana Parishes; over thirty of Audubon's bird paintings were created in W Feliciana Parish.
• The northbound span of the Bi-Land Vietnam Golden Star Bridges was originally named the Audubon Memorial Bridge.
• Audubon Park, in Memphis, Tennessee, is associated with the nearby Botanic Garden.
• John James Audubon State Park and the Audubon Museum (located within the park) in Henderson, Kentucky.
• Audubon Parkway, also in Kentucky, is a limited-access highway connecting Henderson with Owensboro, Kentucky.
• Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Nantes and Rue Audubon in Paris, France.
• Rue Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, French republic.
• Lycée Jean-Jacques Audubon in Couëron, France.
• Marais Audubon betwixt Couëron and St Etienne de Mont-luc, French republic.
• Audubon Circumvolve, a major intersection and neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts; Park Drive (parkway), which runs through the Audubon Circle, was formerly named Audubon Road.
• John James Audubon Parkway in Amherst, New York.
• Audubon Avenue in New York, New York.
• Audubon Bird Sanctuary, Dauphin Island, Alabama^[122]
• Audubon National Wildlife Refuge, Coleharbor, Due north Dakota
• Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Northeast Minneapolis, Minnesota.
• Audubon Park, a park and neighborhood in Orlando, Florida. The streets are named after birds, such as Falcon Drive and Raven Road.
• Mutiny Glades Conservation and Audubon Center in Joplin, Missouri.
• Audubon International, a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit arrangement that administers a wide range of ecology instruction and certification programs on backdrop such as golf courses, hotels, school campuses, ski areas, cemeteries, corporate parks, and agricultural lands.^[123]
• The Scioto Audubon Metro Park in Columbus, Ohio^[124]
• Audubon Recreation Eye in Garland, Texas.^[125]
• Mount Audubon (13223 ft), Colorado
• Audubon Loftier Schoolhouse in Camden County, New Jersey, and many primary schools around the United States
• Audubon Golf Trail - a collection of golf courses spread throughout Louisiana
• John James Audubon Elementary Schoolhouse in Chicago, Illinois.^[126]
• Pascagoula River Audubon Center in Moss Indicate, Mississippi.^[127]
• Audubon Business firm & Gallery in Key W, Florida.^[128]
• Audubon Street, habitation to the Audubon Arts District and The Audubon New Oasis flat building, in New Haven, Connecticut
• Audubon Swamp Garden, function of the Magnolia Plantation and Gardens park forth the Ashley River in Charleston, South Carolina.

Surviving bird specimens [edit]

Some of Audubon's bird specimens survive in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London,^[129] the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,^[130] and there are 5 specimens in the collections of World Museum, National Museums Liverpool.

Works [edit]

Posthumous collections [edit]

• John James Audubon, Selected Journals and Other Writings (Ben Forkner, ed.) (Penguin Nature Classics, 1996) ISBN 0-14-024126-4
• John James Audubon, Writings & Drawings (Christoph Irmscher, ed.) (The Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-883011-68-0
• John James Audubon, The Audubon Reader (Richard Rhodes, ed.) (Everyman Library, 2006) ISBN i-4000-4369-7
• Audubon: Early on Drawings (Richard Rhodes, Scott V. Edwards, Leslie A. Morris) (Harvard University Printing and Houghton Library 2008) ISBN 978-0-674-03102-nine
• John James Audubon, Audubon and His Journals (The European Journals 1826–1829, the Labrador Periodical 1833, the Missouri River Journals 1843), edited by Maria Audubon, volumes ane and two, originally published by Charles Scribner'due south Sons in 1897 (in Wikisource).

See also [edit]

• Audubon House and Tropical Gardens, Key W, Florida
• Audubon International
• Audubon Mural Projection
• Audubon Park Historic District, New York City
• Audubon State Historic Site, Westward Feliciana Parish, Louisiana
• List of wildlife artists
• National Audubon Guild
• Rider pigeon

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Oxford illustrated encyclopedia. Judge, Harry George., Toyne, Anthony. Oxford [England]: Oxford Academy Printing. 1985–1993. p. 26. ISBN0-xix-869129-7. OCLC 11814265. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
2. ^ "Domicile". Audubon . Retrieved August 6, 2020.
3. ^ "Avibase advanced search: [Author = "Audubon"]". Avibase: The World Bird Database . Retrieved Baronial 6, 2020.
4. ^ Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 26. ISBN 0-86576-008-X
5. ^ ^{a b} Rhodes, Richard John James Audubon: The Making of an American, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004, p. 4, accessed April 26, 2011.
6. ^ Sometimes, it is written "Rabin"
7. ^ ^{a b} Souder 2005, p. 18
8. ^ The Pop science monthly. MBLWHOI Library. [New York, Popular Scientific discipline Pub. Co., etc.] 1887. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
9. ^ ^{a b} DeLatt, Carolyne E., Lucy Audubon: A Biography (LSU Press, 2008), p. 21
10. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), p. 6
11. ^ Souder 2005, p. 19
12. ^ Alice Ford, Audubon By Himself, The Natural History Press, Garden Urban center, NY: 1969, p. four
13. ^ Rhodes, JJ Audubon (2004), p. 6
14. ^ ^{a b} Souder 2005, p. twenty
15. ^ Shirley Streshinsky, Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness, Villard Books, New York, 1993, ISBN 0-679-40859-2, p. thirteen
16. ^ Stanley Clisby Arthur, Audubon" An Intimate Life of the American Woodsman (Pelican Publishing, 1937), p. 478
17. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 22
18. ^ Ford 1969, p. 3
19. ^ ^{a b} Rhodes 2004, p. v
20. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 14
21. ^ Streshinsky 1993, pp. sixteen–17
22. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), pp. iii–4
23. ^ Sharpe, Mary Rozier and James, Louis, Between the Gabouri, History of the Rozier Family, 1981
24. ^ Rhodes, John James Audubon (2004), p.
25. ^ "National Gallery of Art". Nga.gov. Archived from the original on April 12, 2010. Retrieved December ten, 2010.
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27. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 24
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36. ^ Weatherhead, Patrick J.; Forbes, Mark R. 50. (December 1, 1994). "Natal philopatry in passerine birds: genetic or ecological influences?". Behavioral Ecology. 5 (four): 426–433. doi:10.1093/beheco/5.iv.426. ISSN 1045-2249.
37. ^ "John James Audubon Timeline", American Masters, PBS. Retrieved Feb vii, 2009.
38. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of of import events of the twelvemonth: 1862. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1863. p. 672.
39. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 55
40. ^ ^{a b} Streshinsky 1993, p. 64
41. ^ Rhodes 2004, pp. 83–85
42. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 166
43. ^ Ford 1969, p. 24
44. ^ Agreement from Francis Hobart Herrick, Ph.D., Sc.D.D., Audubon the Naturalist: A History of His Life and Time. Appleton and Visitor, New York, London, 1917, p. 359.
45. ^ Original mitt-written receipt of the financial exchange per the Agreement, Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, Missouri. "Ste. Genevieve Apr six, 1811, $1,000.000, Vi Months later date I hope to pay Mr. John Audubon or Orders 1 One thousand Dollars Value without (unreadable). Signed Ferdinand Rozier (signature torn off), Witnessed: John Lecite, John McAuthur"
46. ^ Rozier, Firmin A. (1890). History of the Early Settlement of the Mississippi Valley.
47. ^ Ford 1969, p. 56
48. ^ ^{a b} His widow, ed. (1869). The Life of John James Audubon the Naturalist. New York: G. P. Putnam & Son.
49. ^ Ford 1969, p. 57
50. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 105
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53. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 143
54. ^ "An exhibition opening for In the Audubon Tradition". Cincy Museum Eye . Retrieved November 7, 2019.
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56. ^ Markle, Douglas F. (1997). "Audubon'southward hoax: Ohio River fishes described by Rafinesque". Athenaeum of Natural History. 24 (3): 439–447. doi:10.3366/anh.1997.24.3.439.
57. ^ ^{a b c} Woodman, Neal (2016). "Pranked past Audubon: Constantine S. Rafinesque'due south description of John James Audubon'due south imaginary Kentucky mammals" (PDF). Archives of Natural History. 43 (1): 95–108. doi:10.3366/anh.2016.0349.
58. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 209
59. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 102
60. ^ ^{a b} Punke, p. 21
61. ^ Arthur, pp. 256–57
62. ^ Arthur, pp. 258–59
63. ^ Punke, p. 225
64. ^ ^{a b} Halley, Matthew R. (2018). "Lost Tales of American Ornithology: Reuben Haines and the Canada Geese of Wyck (1818–1828)" (PDF). Cassinia. 76: 63.
65. ^ ^{a b} Dunlap, William (1834). History of the rising and progress of the arts of design in the U.s.a., Book 2. New York, NY: George P. Scott & Co., New York.
66. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 237
67. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Halley, Matthew R. (June 2020). "Audubon's Bird of Washington: unravelling the fraud that launched The birds of America". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Lodge. 140 (2): 110–141. doi:10.25226/bboc.v140i2.2020.a3. ISSN 0007-1595.
68. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 261
69. ^ ^{a b} Rhodes 2004, p. 403
70. ^ Mearns, B. & R., John Kirk Townsend: Collector of Audubon'south Western Birds and Mammals (2007)
71. ^ Townsend, John Kirk, Excursion to the Oregon, Edinburgh: Westward. and R. Chambers, 1846
72. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 303
73. ^ Halley, Matthew R. (June 22, 2020). "Audubon'due south Bird of Washington: unravelling the fraud that launched The birds of America". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 140 (2): 110–141. doi:ten.25226/bboc.v140i2.2020.a3.
74. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 328
75. ^ Rhodes 2004, pp. 273, 389
76. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 300
77. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 279
78. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 276
79. ^ "John James Audubon Chronicle", Cleveland Museum of Natural History, press release, Feb 1, 2007 Archived July 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
80. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 316
81. ^ ^{a b} National Audubon Social club Inc. (n.d.) John James Audubon Retrieved from [1]
82. ^ Lyons, M. (2011). Books A Living History. Los Angeles, California: Getty Publications.
83. ^ Lyons 2011, pp. 135–36
84. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 392
85. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
86. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org . Retrieved Apr 8, 2021.
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88. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 366
89. ^ ^{a b} "Dedication ceremonies for Bulow Plantation Ruins Historic Land Park – Bunnell, Florida", Florida Memory, accessed March xiv, 2015.
90. ^ ^{a b} Ease and Elegance, Madeira and Murder: The Social Life of Savannah'due south City Hotel, Malcolm Bell, Jr. (1992), p. 558
91. ^ Tuck, Leslie. Montevecchi, William. Nuttall Ornithological Club. Newfoundland Birds, Exploitation, Report, Conservation, Harvard Academy Press, 1987.
92. ^ Cox, C. 1983. A Cardinal West Companion. Macmillan. pp. 49–51. ISBN 0-312-45183-0
93. ^ Most, Jennifer L. et al. Audubon Park Historic District Designation Report New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (May 12, 2009), p. 3, paragraph 2.
94. ^ Audubon, John James (1840–1844). The Birds of America: From Drawings Made in the Us and their Territories. New York: J.B. Chevalier – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
95. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 430
96. ^ Chancellor, John (1978). Audubon : A Biography. New York: Viking Printing. p. 210. ISBN978-0-670-14053-4.
97. ^ Streshinsky 1993, p. 361
98. ^ "What is the Heritage Rose District of NYC?". mbpo.org. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011.
99. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 375
100. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 163
101. ^ Gardner, Albert TenEyck (1963). "John James Audubon and Campephilus Principalis". The Metropolitan Museum of Fine art Bulletin. 21 (9): 309–316. doi:x.2307/3257944. ISSN 0026-1521. JSTOR 3257944.
102. ^ ^{a b} Ord, George (1840). "Minutes from the Stated Coming together, September xviii [1840]". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. one: 272.
103. ^ ^{a b} Hunter, Clark (1983). The Life and Letters of Alexander Wilson. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. ISBN978-0-87169-154-5.
104. ^ ^{a b} MARKLE, DOUGLAS F. (October ane, 1997). "Audubon's hoax: Ohio River fishes described past Rafinesque". Archives of Natural History. 24 (iii): 439–447. doi:10.3366/anh.1997.24.3.439. ISSN 0260-9541.
105. ^ Fries, Waldemar H. (2006). The Double Elephant Page. Zenaida Publishing Co. ISBN978-0-9770829-0-2.
106. ^ Richards, Irving T. (May 1934). "Audubon, Joseph R. Mason, and John Neal". American Literature. half dozen (2): 122–140. doi:10.2307/2919790. JSTOR 2919790.
107. ^ DALLETT, FRANCIS JAMES (1959). "Citizen Audubon: A Documentary Discovery". The Princeton University Library Chronicle. 21 (1/two): 89–93. doi:10.2307/26409602. ISSN 0032-8456. JSTOR 26409602.
108. ^ Nobles, Gregory (July 31, 2020). "The Myth of John James Audubon". Audubon.org.
109. ^ Rhodes 2004, p. 306
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112. ^ Ben Quinn (November 26, 2008). "John James Audubon's birthday celebrated past Google doodle". Guardian . Retrieved Apr 26, 2011.
113. ^ Robert Penn Warren (October i, 1998). The Collected Works of Robert Penn Warren. ISBN978-0-8071-2333-1 . Retrieved Oct 26, 2014.
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115. ^ Govier, Katherine (2002). Creation. New York: Overlook Press. ISBN1-58567-410-9.
116. ^ Howard, Maureen (2001). Big as Life: Iii Tales for Leap. New York: Viking. ISBN0-670-89978-X.
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Bibliography [edit]

• Anon. (1887) Sketch of J.J. Audubon. The Pop Science Monthly. pp. 687–692.
• Arthur, Stanley Clisby (1937). Audubon; An Intimate Life of the American Woodsman. New Orleans: Harmanson. OCLC 1162643 view excerpts online
• Audubon, Lucy Green Bakewell, ed. (1870). The Life of John James Audubon, the Naturalist. New York: G.P.Putnam & Sons.
• Burroughs, J. (1902). John James Audubon. Boston: Small, Maynard & company. OCLC 648935
• Chalmers, John (2003). Audubon in Edinburgh and his Scottish Associates. NMS Publishing, Edinburgh, 978 one 901663 79 ii
• Ford, Alice (1969). Audubon By Himself. Garden City NY: The Natural History Press
• Ford, Alice (1964; revised 1988). John James Audubon. University of Oklahoma Press
• Fulton, Maurice K. (1917). Southern Life in Southern Literature; selections of representative prose and poetry. Boston, New York [etc.]: Ginn and Co. OCLC 1496258 view online hither
• Jackson E Christine (2013). John James Audubon and English Perspective Christine E Jackson
• Herrick, Francis Hobart (1917). Aububon the naturalist: A History of his Life and Time. D. Appleton and Company, New York. Volume IVolume 2 (combined 2nd 1938 edition)
• Logan, Peter (2016). Audubon: America's Greatest Naturalist and His Voyage of Discovery to Labrador. San Francisco, California: Ashbryn Printing. ISBN978-0-9972282-1-2.
• Olson, Roberta J.M. (2012). Audubon's Aviary: The Original Watercolors for The Birds of America. New York: Skira/Rizzoli and New-York Historical Guild. ISBN 978-0-8478-3483-9
• Olson, Roberta J.1000. (2021). "Hiding in Obviously Sight: New Evidence about the Birth, Identity, and Strategic Pseudonyms of John James Audubon". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 163 (iv): 129–150. doi:10.3099/MCZ70. ISSN 0027-4100. Discusses the series of names assigned to Audubon as a youth.
• Punke, Michael (2007). Last Stand: George Bird Grinnell, the Battle to Salve the Buffalo, and the Birth of the New West. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-0-06-089782-6
• Rhodes, Richard (2004). John James Audubon: The Making of an American. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41412-half dozen
• St. John, Mrs. Horace (1884). Life of Audubon, the naturalist of the New World, His Adventures and Discoveries. Philadelphia: J.B.Lippincott & Co.
• Pocket-sized, Eastward., Catling, Paul M., Cayouette, J., and Brookes, B (2009). Audubon: Across Birds: Plant Portraits and Conservation Heritage of John James Audubon. NRC Research Printing, Ottawa, ISBN 978-0-660-19894-ane
• Souder, William (2005) Under a Wild Sky: John James Audubon and the Making of The Birds of America. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-86547-726-four
• Streshinsky, Shirley (1993). Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness. New York: Villard Books, ISBN 0-679-40859-two

External links [edit]

• Audubon Birds of America at New York Historical Social club
• Works past John James Audubon at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or almost John James Audubon at Internet Archive
• Works by John James Audubon at Toronto Public Library
• Works by John James Audubon at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• John James Audubon at American Art Gallery
• Audubon'due south Birds of America at the Academy of Pittsburgh, a consummate high resolution digitization of all 435 double elephant folios as well as his Ornithological Biography
• The John James Audubon Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University
• "Audubon biography", National Audubon Society
• "Louise Hauss and David Brent Miller Audubon Collection", Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art, Auburn University
• John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky
• Audubon's Birds of America, podcast from the Beinecke Library, Yale University
• John James Audubon and Audubon family messages, (ca. 1783–1845) from the Smithsonian Archives of American Fine art
• View works by John James Audubon online at the Biodiversity Heritage Library.
• Watercolors for Birds of America at the New York Historical Society
• Burgwin Family unit Papers, 1844–1963, AIS.1971.14, Athenaeum Service Center, University of Pittsburgh. Includes Audubon-Bakewell family unit materials.
• John James Audubon Collection at the Library of Congress
• Identification guide to Audubon print editions
• Blueish jay: Corvus cristatus by John James Audubon at the Cleveland Public Library Art Collection
• Victor Gifford Audubon Collection. General Drove, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale Academy.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_James_Audubon

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